Oligarchy, government by the few, especially despotic power exercised by a small and privileged group for corrupt or selfish blogger.comchies in which members of the ruling group are wealthy or exercise their power through their wealth are known as plutocracies.. Aristotle used the term oligarchia to designate the rule of the few when it was exercised not by the best but by bad persons At pm on September 21, , President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law. [better source needed] This marked the beginning of a year period of one-man rule which would effectively last until Marcos was exiled from the country on February 24, Even though the formal document proclaiming martial law – Proclamation No Law school Personal statement editing I was very happy with the work done by the editors! I handed in my Bachelor´s thesis in different parts and although different editors worked on the different parts, they turned out cohesive. Moreover, the editors added useful feedback and links regarding the mistakes make and how to prevent them in
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At pm on September 21,law thesis online editors, [1] President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law.
While the period of Philippine history in which Ferdinand Marcos was in power actually began seven years earlier, when he was first inaugurated president of the Philippines in late[5] this article deals specifically with the period where he exercised dictatorial powers under martial law, [1] and the period in which he continued to wield those powers despite technically lifting the proclamation of martial law in When he declared the martial law inMarcos claimed that he had done so in response to the "communist threat" posed by the newly founded Communist Party of the Philippines CPP law thesis online editors, and the sectarian "rebellion" of the Mindanao Independence Movement MIM.
Opposition figures of the time, such as Lorenzo TañadaJose Dioknolaw thesis online editors, and Jovito Salongalaw thesis online editors, accused Marcos of exaggerating these threats, using them as a convenient excuse to consolidate power and extend his tenure beyond the two presidential terms allowed by the Constitution.
After Marcos was ousted, government investigators discovered that the declaration of martial law law thesis online editors also allowed the Marcoses to hide secret stashes of unexplained wealth which various courts [2] [ better source needed ] later determined to be "of criminal origin".
This year period in Philippine history is remembered for the administration's record of human rights abuses, [9] [10] particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, [11] [ better source needed ] journalists, law thesis online editors, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship.
Numerous explanations have been put forward as reasons for Marcos to declare martial law in Septembersome of which were presented by the Marcos administration as official justifications, and some of which were dissenting perspectives put forward by either the mainstream political opposition or by analysts studying the political economy of the decision, law thesis online editors. identifies three reasons expressed by the Marcos administration, saying that martial law: [15].
The first two justifications were explicitly stated in Proclamationwhich cited two explicit justifications: "to save the republic" from various plots ; and "to reform society" after the failure of American-style democracy.
Opposition to Marcos' declaration of martial law ran the whole gamut of Philippine society — ranging from impoverished peasants whom the administration tried to chase out of their homes; to the Philippines' political old-guard, whom Marcos had tried to displace from power; to academics and economists who disagreed with the specifics of Marcos' martial law policies.
All of these, regardless of their social position or policy beliefs, law thesis online editors, subscribed to the interpretation that Marcos declared martial law: [15]. In addition, some critics who ascribe an economic component to Marcos' motivations, [15] suggesting that martial law:. Although Marcos initially claimed that he had declared martial law in response to violent acts which took place in —72 — such as the Plaza Miranda bombing and the alleged assassination attempt on Defense Secretary Enrile — the groundwork for its implementation had been laid down much earlier.
Marcos aide-turned whistleblower Primitivo Mijares noted that "The beginning infrastructure for martial law was actually laid down as early as the first day of his assumption of the Philippine presidency law thesis online editors December 30, Marcos began increasing his influence over the armed forces of the Philippines as soon as he became president in by following President Ramon Magsaysay's precedent of concurrently hold the portfolio of defense secretary in the first thirteen months of his presidency.
no one opposed the plan because no one was certain that the plan would be carried out. Marcos soon carried out the law thesis online editors reshuffle in the history of the armed forces" when he forcibly retired fourteen of the AFP's twenty-five flag officers, including the AFP Chief of Staff, the AFP Vice Chief of Staff, the commanding general of the Philippine Army, the Chief of the Philippine Constabulary, the commanders of all four Constabulary Zones, and one third of all Provincial Commanders of the PC.
One prominent early example of an officer forced to resign his commission was Navy Commodore Ramon Alcaraz — a World War II hero who would eventually be dubbed the "father of the Philippine Marines", and have a Philippine Navy ship named after him. Alcaraz was forced to resign from the Armed Forces because his success in the Navy's anti-smuggling operations had come into conflict with Marcos accommodations with alleged "smuggler-king" Lino Bocalan.
In their place, Marcos appointed officers from his home region, the Ilocos, the most significant of whom had familial connections to Marcos — ensuring their familial and regionalistic loyalties to him. The practice was so pervasive that it quickly earned a moniker: "Ilocanization".
In tandem with this "Ilocanization", generals loyal to Marcos were allowed to stay in their positions past their supposed retirement age, or were rewarded with civilian government posts.
As a result, Security Affairs Professor Douglas J. Macdonald noted that "near the end of the dictatorship, the Military and the Intelligence organizations were badly polarized along generational lines, as they are today. In Junelaw thesis online editors, Marcos authorized the creation of civil militias called "Barangay Self Defense Units", which would be renamed the Civilian Home Defense Forces in through Presidential Decree When Marcos was ready to declare martial law, copies law thesis online editors the plan law thesis online editors its implementation were distributed to key officials within the Armed Forces, law thesis online editors.
As a way of assuring that any whistleblowers would be easily accounted for, law thesis online editors, the copies of the plan were distributed with codeword titles taken from the signs of the Zodiac. The copy marked "Sagittarius" was given to General Marcos "Mark" Soliman who commanded the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency. Thus, when Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. exposed the existence of "Oplan Sagittarius" a week before martial law was declared, other generals were able to deny that they had heard of any operation under the said code title, and it was law thesis online editors for Marcos to pinpoint Soliman as the whistleblower who gave the information to Aquino.
Not long after the declaration of martial law, the controlled press reported that Soliman had died of a heart attack, but his family believed that Marcos had ordered that he be killed. ByMarcos had reached out to US Ambassador to the Philippines Henry Byroade, with the question of whether the United States, then under the administration of President Richard Nixon, would support him law thesis online editors he choose to proclaim Martial Law.
Byroade brought the matter up with Nixon in a conversation in January According to the US National Archives' copy of the Memorandum of Conversation between Nixon and Byroade: [19]. The President indicated that we would not support anyone who was trying to set himself up as military dictator, but we would do everything we can to back a man who was trying to make the system work and to preserve order.
Of course, we understood that Marcos would not be entirely motivated by national interests, but this was something which we had come to expect from Asian leaders. Marcos informed the US Ambassador to the Philippines about his intent to declare Martial Law plan as early as September 17,just a few days before Martial Law was announced on September 23, Law thesis online editors the various threats cited in the Proclamation document as rationalizations for declaration of Martial Law, the most extensively described was the threat supposedly posed by Communist insurgents — specifically the newly formed Communist Party of the Philippinesa Maoist organization which had only recently broken off from the Marxist—Leninist Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas.
When Marcos became president inPhilippine policy and politics functioned under a Post-World War II geopolitical framework. Filipino Presidents were very politically dependent on US Support, and this did not change until the end of the Cold War inand the termination of the US Military Bases Treaty, in With its close ties to the US, the Philippines was ideologically caught up in the anticommunist scare perpetuated by the US during the Cold War. The Philippines would take three and a half decades to repeal it, through Republic Actin RA was originally meant to counter the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas PKP and its armed force, the Hukbalahap also called the "Huks.
The campaign against the PKP and the Huks was bloody, but it had basically ended by When Marcos became president inthe PKP was a weakened organization, and the Hukbalahap reduced to "what amounted to banditry. Marcos continued using communism as bogeyman afteras the PKP faded into obscurity and the nascent CPP became more prominent, law thesis online editors.
The Armed Forces of the Philippines did likewise inwhen the CPP allied with Huk commander Bernabe Buscayno to create the nascent New People's Army. Although the CPP-NPA was only a small force at the time, law thesis online editors, the AFP hyped up its formation, [39] p"43" partly because doing so was good for building up the AFP budget.
Kesslerlaw thesis online editors the AFP mythologized the group, investing it with a revolutionary aura that ony attracted more supporters, law thesis online editors. Even in the days immediately before Marcos' declaration of Martial Law on September 23,the Philippine National Security Council did not consider the two communist movements to represent a sizeable threat.
At around that time, the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations received notice that as of September law thesis online editors,the Philippine Council had set their threat assessment at "between 'normal' and 'Internal Defense Condition 1'" on a scale where 3 was the highest Defense condition.
The military could handle them. Despite historical consensus that the Marcos administration willfully exaggerated the capabilities and actions of the Communist Party of the Philippines, a few of the incidents cited by Marcos have been confirmed as genuine activities of the CPP. These included: the December raid on the Philippine Military Academy 's armory by defecting army officer Victor Corpus ; and the July MV Karagatan incident in which a secret arms shipment from China, meant for Communist Party forces, sank just off Digoyo Point in Palanan, Isabela.
Numerous other incidents cited by Marcos as rationalizations for his declaration of Martial Law have either been discredited or disputed, in light of Marcos' known tactic of undertaking false flag operations as a propaganda technique. This includes: the August Plaza Miranda bombing ; the Manila bombings law thesis online editors March to September of that year; and the alleged September Ambush of Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile.
The social unrest of toand the violent dispersal of the resulting " First Quarter Storm " protests were among the early watershed events in which large numbers of Filipino students of the s were radicalized against the Marcos administration. Other watershed events that would later radicalize many otherwise "moderate" opposition members include the February Diliman Commune ; the August suspension of the writ of habeas corpus in the wake of the Plaza Miranda bombing; the September declaration of Martial Law ; the murder of Macli-ing Dulag ; [47] and the August assassination of Ninoy Aquino.
This radicalization led to a significant growth of the Communist Party of the Philippines under the Marcos administration. Yes, there were activists, there were some firebrands but there were no armed rebels then except for those that eventually formed the Moro National Liberation Front. When Marcos fled inthe NPA was virtually in all Mindanao provinces, enjoying even a tacit alliance with the MNLF.
Several conflicting accounts about exist regarding the exact date law thesis online editors which Marcos signed the physical Proclamation No. Whichever the case, the document was formally dated September 21 because of his superstitions and numerological beliefs concerning the number seven.
Thus, September 21, became the official date that martial law was established and the day that the Marcos dictatorship began. This also allowed Marcos to control history on his own terms. September 22, marked a brief period in which Proclamation No. For most of the Philippines, therefore, martial law was thus properly implemented when it was announced on the evening of September 23, The implementation of martial law began sometime before midnight on September 22, with the arrest of Benigno Aquino Jr.
By dawn of the following day,many of the individuals listed on the Military's priority arrest list—journalists, members of the political opposition, constitutional law thesis online editors delegates, outspoken lawyers, teachers, and students—had been detained.
Media outlets were shuttered, law thesis online editors, although those linked with Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto were allowed to reopen within the day. Soon after, Congress was abolished, mass activities were prohibited, political parties were outlawed, a curfew was put in place, and civil and political rights were suspended. The first wave of arrests under Marcos' declaration of martial law began with the arrest of Senator Benigno Aquino Jr.
late in the evening of September 22, during a late meeting of the Joint Congressional Committee on Tariff Reforms at the Manila Hilton Hotel. Aquino was one of Marcos' most prominent critics, and had exposed the plan to proclaim martial law in a speech in the Philippine Senate the week before.
Juan Ponce Enrile would law thesis online editors acknowledge that the first wave of arrests focused on political figures and journalists "in the initial stages, we must emasculate all the leaders in order to control the situation.
The arrest of others took place after midnight in the early morning hours of September Martial law forces were sent out to arrest individuals on their priority target list. By am, Senator Jose W. Diokno had been arrested at his residence, as had poet-Senator Soc Rodrigo as of am that day. Vice President Fernando Lopez, who had resigned from his cabinet positions in the Marcos administration after accusing Marcos of corruption and power-grabbing, was on the priority list but was overseas at the time of the declaration, law thesis online editors.
Sergio Osmeña Jr. and Osmeña's son Sergio Osmeña III were arrested in what international media described as an act of extortion designed to undermine their families' financial empires. By the dawn of September 23, of the individuals on the list were in detention centers, with detainees including Senator Ramon Mitra, JRU history teacher Etta RosalesUniversity of the Philippines College of Social Work professor Flora Lansang, human rights lawyer Haydee YoracManila Times publisher Chino Roces, and a plethora of journalists.
Student leaders were arrested regardless of whether their organizations were "radical" or "moderate". Newspaper editors arrested that night included Amando Doronilla of the Daily MirrorLuis Mauricio of the Philippine GraphicTeodoro Locsin Sr. of the Philippine Free Pressand Rolando Fadul of the vernacular broadsheet Taliba. Also arrested were reporters Robert Ordoñez of the Philippine HeraldRosalinda Galang of the Manila Times ; columnists Ernesto Granada of the Manila Chronicle and Maximo Soliven of the Manila Timesand Luis Beltran and Ruben Cusipag of the Evening News.
Phil Free Press Associate Editor Napoleon Rama and ABS-CBN broadcaster Jose Mari Velez also happened to be delegates to the Constitutional Law thesis online editors, and were among the 11 outspoken convention delegates to be arrested. The others included Heherson AlvarezAlejandro Lichuaco, Voltaire Garcia, and Teofisto Guingona Jr. By the morning of September 23,martial law forces had successfully implemented a media lockdown, with only outlets associated with Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto allowed to operate.
In the afternoon, Benedicto-owned television channel KBS-9 went back on air playing episodes of Hanna-Barbera 's Wacky Races cartoon series, which was interrupted at PM, when Press Secretary Francisco Tatad went on air to read Proclamation No. On the following Morning, September 24, law thesis online editors, the headline of Benedicto's Daily Express announced "FM Declares Martial Law" — the only national newspaper to come out in the immediate aftermath of martial law.
The declaration shut down 7 television stations, 16 national daily newspapers, 11 weekly magazines, 66 community newspapers, and radio stations; as well as public utilities such as MeralcoPLDTand the three then-existing Philippine Airlines.
Marcos' September proclamation of martial law had major repercussions for the Constitutional Convention. Marcos arrested the leadership of the "opposition bloc" of the convention, who wanted to make sure that Marcos would not stay in power longer than the two terms allowed him under the constitution. Eventually, a group law thesis online editors Marcos-supporting delegates led by Gilberto Duavit came up with an entirely new draft of the constitution, which they submitted to Malacañang for ratification only two months after the proclamation of martial law.
The work of the convention was affected by the declaration of martial law in September by President Ferdinand Marcos ; the military units assigned to implement martial law were given a list of individuals to arrest, consisting law thesis online editors of outspoken critics of Ferdinand Marcos' administration.
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, time: 5:05Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos - Wikipedia
Black Death, pandemic that ravaged Europe between and , taking a proportionately greater toll of life than any other known epidemic or war up to that time. The Black Death is widely thought to have been the result of plague, caused by infection with the bacterium Yersinia pestis At pm on September 21, , President Ferdinand Marcos announced that he had placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law. [better source needed] This marked the beginning of a year period of one-man rule which would effectively last until Marcos was exiled from the country on February 24, Even though the formal document proclaiming martial law – Proclamation No The ICMJE is a small group of general medical journal editors and representatives of selected related organizations working together to improve the quality of medical science and its reporting. ICMJE meets annually to refine its Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals
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