The research of the past few decades has expanded our understanding of the phenomena linked to the concepts of anxiety and anxiety disorder. A comparison of contemporary reports with those of the last half century provides reason for optimism, for we have learned several important facts. First, the state we call anxiety in humans is not unitary in origin or consequence and can be the result of We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow blogger.com more Sep 07, · This review takes a historical perspective on concepts in the psychology of motivation and emotion, and surveys recent developments, debates and applications. Old debates over emotion have recently risen again. For example, are emotions necessarily subjective feelings? Do animals have emotions? I review evidence that emotions exist as core psychological processes, which have
Cognition and emotion - Scholarpedia
A phobia is a type of anxiety disorder defined by a persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation. Phobias can be divided into specific phobiassocial phobiaand agoraphobia. It fear acquisition association learning model mineka recommended that specific phobias be treated with exposure therapyin which the person is introduced to the situation or object in question until the fear resolves.
The international medical organisation for the classification of diseasesthe International Classification of Diseases 10th version: ICDclassifies phobic anxiety disorders as mental and behavioral disorders.
Most phobias are classified into three categories and, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition DSM-Vsuch phobias are considered sub-types of anxiety disorder. The categories are:. Specific phobias : Fear of particular objects or social situations that immediately results in anxiety and can sometimes lead to panic attacks. Specific phobia may be further subdivided into four categories: animal type, natural environment type, situational type, blood-injection-injury type, fear acquisition association learning model mineka.
Agoraphobia : a generalized fear of leaving home or a small familiar 'safe' area, and of possible panic attacks that might follow. It may also be caused by various specific phobias such as fear of open spaces, social embarrassment social agoraphobiafear of contamination fear of germs, possibly complicated by obsessive—compulsive disorder or PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder related to a trauma that occurred out of doors.
Social phobiaalso known as social anxiety disorder, is when the situation is feared as the person is worried about others judging them. Phobias vary in severity among individuals. Some individuals can simply avoid the subject of their fear and suffer relatively mild anxiety over that fear.
Others suffer full-fledged panic attacks with all the associated disabling symptoms. Most individuals understand that they are suffering from an irrational fear, but are powerless to override their panic reaction.
These individuals often report dizziness, loss of bladder or bowel control, tachypneafeelings of pain, and shortness of breath. A specific phobia is a marked and persistent fear of an object or situation. Specific phobias may also include fear of losing control, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, panicking, and fainting from an encounter with the phobia. The DSM breaks specific phobias fear acquisition association learning model mineka five subtypes: animal, natural environment, blood-injection-injury, situation and others.
Additionally, specific phobias are most prevalent in fear acquisition association learning model mineka between ages 10 and Much of the progress in understanding the acquisition of fear responses in phobias can be attributed to classical conditioning Pavlovian model.
The UCS originates from an aversive or traumatizing event in the person's life, such as almost falling down from a great height. The original fear of almost falling down is associated with being in a high place, leading to a fear of heights. In other words, the CS heights associated with the aversive UCS almost falling down leads to the CR fear. This direct conditioning model, though very influential in the theory of fear acquisition, is not the only way to acquire a phobia.
Vicarious fear acquisition is learning to fear something, not by a subject's own experience of fear, but by watching others reacting fearfully observational learning. For instance, when a child sees a parent reacting fearfully to an animal, the child can become afraid of the animal as well. For instance, fearing electrical wire after having heard that touching it causes an electric shock. A conditioned fear response to an object or situation is not always a phobia, fear acquisition association learning model mineka.
To meet the criteria for a phobia there must also be symptoms of impairment and avoidance. Impairment is defined as being unable to complete routine tasks whether occupational, academic or social. In acrophobia, an impairment of occupation could result from not taking a job solely because of its location at the top floor of a building, or socially not participating in a social event at a theme park.
The avoidance aspect is defined as behaviour that results in the omission of an aversive event that would otherwise occur, intending to prevent anxiety. Beneath the lateral fissure in the cerebral cortexthe insula, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, or insular cortexof the brain has been identified as part of the limbic systemalong with cingulated gyrushippocampuscorpus callosum and other nearby cortices.
This system has been found to play a role in emotion processing [21] and the insula, in particular, may contribute through its role in maintaining autonomic functions. indicate the insula as being involved in the experience of emotion by detecting and interpreting threatening stimuli.
In the frontal lobes, other cortices involved with phobia and fear are the anterior cingulate cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex. In the processing of emotional stimuli, studies on phobic reactions to facial expressions have indicated that these areas are involved in processing and responding to negative stimuli. Stimulation of this area decreases conditioned fear responses, so its role may be in inhibiting the amygdala and its reaction to fearful stimuli. The hippocampus is a horseshoe-shaped structure that plays an important part in the brain's limbic system because of its role in forming memories and connecting them with emotions and the senses.
When dealing with fear, the hippocampus receives impulses from the amygdala that allow it to connect the fear with a certain sense, such as a smell or sound. The amygdala is an almond-shaped mass of nuclei that is located deep in the brain's medial temporal lobe. It processes the events associated with fear and is linked to social phobia and other anxiety disorders. The amygdala's ability to respond to fearful stimuli occurs through the process of fear conditioning. Similar to classical conditioningthe amygdala learns to associate a conditioned stimulus with a negative or avoidant stimulus, creating a conditioned fear response that is often seen in phobic individuals.
In this way, the amygdala is responsible for not only recognizing certain stimuli or cues as dangerous but plays a role in the storage of threatening stimuli to memory. The basolateral nuclei or basolateral amygdala and the hippocampus interact with the amygdala in the storage of memory, which suggests why memories are often remembered more vividly if they have emotional significance. In addition to memory, the amygdala also triggers the secretion of hormones that affect fear and aggression.
When the fear or aggression response is initiated, the amygdala releases hormones into the body to put the human body into an "alert" state, which prepares the individual to move, run, fight, etc. Inside the brain, however, this stress response can be observed in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis HPA. This circuit incorporates the process of receiving stimuli, interpreting it and releasing certain hormones into the bloodstream.
The parvocellular neurosecretory neurons of the hypothalamus release corticotropin-releasing hormone CRHwhich is sent to the anterior pituitary.
Here the pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTHwhich ultimately stimulates the release of cortisol. In relation to anxiety, the amygdala is responsible for activating this circuit, while the hippocampus is responsible for suppressing it. Glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus monitor the amount of cortisol in the system and through negative feedback can tell the hypothalamus to stop releasing CRH. Studies on mice engineered to have high concentrations of CRH showed higher levels of anxiety, while those engineered to have no or low amounts of CRH receptors were less anxious.
In people with phobias, therefore, high amounts of cortisol may be present, or alternatively, there may be low levels of glucocorticoid receptors or even serotonin 5-HT. For the areas in the brain involved in emotion—most specifically fear— the processing and response to emotional stimuli can be significantly altered when one of these regions becomes lesioned or damaged. Damage to the cortical areas involved in the limbic system such as the cingulate cortex or frontal lobes have resulted in extreme changes in emotion.
In Klüver—Bucy syndrome, a temporal lobectomy, or removal of the temporal lobes, results in changes involving fear and aggression. Specifically, the removal of these lobes results in decreased fear, confirming its role in fear recognition and response. Bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes, which is known as Urbach—Wiethe disease, exhibits similar symptoms of decreased fear and aggression, but also an inability to recognize emotional expressions, especially angry or fearful faces, fear acquisition association learning model mineka.
The amygdala's role in learned fear includes interactions with other brain regions in the neural circuit of fear, fear acquisition association learning model mineka. While lesions in the amygdala can inhibit its ability to recognize fearful stimuli, other areas such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the basolateral nuclei of the amygdala can affect the region's ability to not only become conditioned to fearful stimuli but to eventually extinguish them.
The basolateral nuclei, through receiving stimulus info, undergo synaptic changes that allow the amygdala to develop a conditioned response to fearful stimuli. Lesions in this area, therefore, have been shown to disrupt the acquisition of learned responses to fear. This suggests there is a pathway or circuit among the amygdala and nearby cortical areas that process emotional stimuli and influence emotional expression, all of which can be disrupted when an area becomes damaged. It is recommended that the terms distress and impairment take into account the context of the person's environment during diagnosis.
The DSM-IV-TR states that if a feared stimulus, whether it be an object or a social situation, is absent entirely in an environment, a diagnosis cannot be made. An example of this situation would be fear acquisition association learning model mineka individual who has a fear of mice but lives in an area devoid of mice.
Even though the concept of mice causes marked distress and impairment within the individual, because the individual does not usually encounter mice, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, no actual distress or impairment is ever experienced. It is recommended that proximity to, and ability to escape from, the stimulus also be considered. As the phobic person approaches a feared stimulus, anxiety levels increase, and the degree to which the person perceives they might escape from the stimulus affects the intensity of fear in instances such as riding an elevator e.
anxiety increases at the midway point between floors and decreases when the floor is reached and the doors open. There are various methods used to treat phobias.
These methods include systematic desensitizationprogressive relaxation, virtual realitymodeling, medication and hypnotherapy. The good news is that over the past several decades, psychologists and other researchers have developed some effective behavioral and pharmacological treatments for phobia, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, as well as technological interventions [30].
Cognitive behavioral therapy CBT can be beneficial by allowing the person fear acquisition association learning model mineka challenge dysfunctional thoughts or beliefs by being mindful of their own feelings, with the aim that the person will realize that his or her fear is irrational. CBT may be conducted in a fear acquisition association learning model mineka setting. Gradual desensitization treatment and CBT are often successful, provided the person is willing to endure some discomfort.
There is evidence that supports that eye movement desensitization and reprocessing EMDR is effective in treating some phobias. A method used in the treatment of a phobia is systematic desensitizationa process in which the people seeking help slowly become accustomed to their phobia, and ultimately overcome it. Traditional systematic desensitization involves a person being exposed to the object they are afraid of over time, so that the fear and discomfort do not become overwhelming. This controlled exposure to the anxiety-provoking stimulus fear acquisition association learning model mineka key to the effectiveness of exposure therapy in the treatment of specific phobias, fear acquisition association learning model mineka.
It has been shown that humor is an excellent alternative when traditional systematic desensitization is ineffective. Progressive muscle relaxation helps people relax their muscles before and during exposure to the feared object or phenomenon. Virtual reality therapy is another technique that helps phobic people confront a feared object.
It uses virtual reality to generate scenes that may not have been possible or ethical in the physical world. It is equally as effective as traditional exposure therapy [40] and offers some additional advantages. These include being able to control the scenes and having the phobic person endure more exposure than they might handle in reality.
Medications can help regulate apprehension and fear of a particular fearful object or situation. Antidepressant medications such as SSRIs or MAOIs may be helpful in some cases of phobia. SSRIs antidepressants act on serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain. Since serotonin impacts mood, people may be prescribed an antidepressant. Sedatives such as benzodiazepines may also be prescribed, which can help people relax by reducing the amount of anxiety they feel.
Beta blockers are another medicinal option as they may stop the stimulating effects of adrenaline, such as sweating, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, tremors and the feeling of a pounding heart. Hypnotherapy can be used alone and in conjunction with systematic desensitization to treat phobias.
The phobia may be caused by a past event that the person does not remember, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, a phenomenon known as repression.
The mind represses traumatic memories from the conscious mind until the person is ready to deal with them.
Using cognitive technology to make object association suggestions
, time: 5:15Phobia - Wikipedia
This direct conditioning model, though very influential in the theory of fear acquisition, is not the only way to acquire a phobia. Vicarious fear acquisition is learning to fear something, not by a subject's own experience of fear, but by watching others reacting fearfully (observational learning) Sep 07, · This review takes a historical perspective on concepts in the psychology of motivation and emotion, and surveys recent developments, debates and applications. Old debates over emotion have recently risen again. For example, are emotions necessarily subjective feelings? Do animals have emotions? I review evidence that emotions exist as core psychological processes, which have The research of the past few decades has expanded our understanding of the phenomena linked to the concepts of anxiety and anxiety disorder. A comparison of contemporary reports with those of the last half century provides reason for optimism, for we have learned several important facts. First, the state we call anxiety in humans is not unitary in origin or consequence and can be the result of
No comments:
Post a Comment